Evidence-Based+Interventions

=Evidence-Based Interventions:= ** Public Posting Intervention ** Mrs. Lisa Tuttle Public Posting is when “students receive visual feedback about their performance.” ( Kerr, M., & Nelson, C. M., 2010, p. 233-234) Public Posting is a Teacher-Mediated Intervention that focuses primarily upon the Middle School population and reinforces appropriate behavioral expectations by means of visual stimulation. It has been “sought to improve rambunctious hall behavior, decrease disruptive behaviors [in the educational environment, as well as provide students with a visual representation of rules, directions and expectations in a visual format.]” ( Kerr, M., & Nelson, C. M., 2010, p. 234) Most often this targeted behavioral intervention has been implemented where transition is present (i.e., changing from one class to another) and/or taking place. It can act as a reinforcement tool for reaching class goals by providing educational professionals with the means to reiterate their behavioral expectations, as well as with the opportunity to review data from previous classes and/or school days; acting as a reinforcer for Positive Behavior Supports (PBS). Teachers can then provide incentives (i.e., rewards, privileges, choice, etc.) to their classes when behavior goals are met. Public Posting is a “simple and inexpensive intervention [that has been] proven [to be] successful in reducing the disruptive behaviors of middle school students.” ( Kerr, M., & Nelson, C. M., 2010, p. 234) Educational professionals who work with the Middle School student population, who are planning and/or implementing tiered interventions, such as PBS can utilize this simple, yet invaluable tool to decrease negatively exhibited behaviors during transitioning in everyday routines. One recommendation that will further assist teachers in enhancing the success rate of this intervention is to provide consistent and immediate positive feedback to students, as well as through the provision of praise when deemed appropriate.

Reference

Kerr, M., & Nelson, C. M. (2010). //Strategies for addressing behavior problems in the classroom// (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

**Sound-Field Amplification Intervention** Mrs. Lisa Tuttle Sound-Field Amplification (SFA) involves “mounting two or three speakers in a classroom and equipping the teacher with a wireless microphone.” ( Kerr, M., & Nelson, C. M., 2010, p. 229) SFA is a Teacher-Mediated Intervention that increases “teacher-student interaction,” as well as decreases the likelihood of negatively exhibited behavioral outbursts in the educational setting. ( Kerr, M., & Nelson, C. M., 2010, p. 228) This particular amplification system acts as an invaluable tool for educational professionals with demanding, disruptive and/or inattentive students; providing them with the means to reiterate directions, instructions and commands by means of auditory input. This particular piece of assistive technology acts as an innovative tool for students with behavioral problems, as well as solidifies the effectiveness of Positive Behavioral Supports (PBS) in the educational setting by minimizing behavioral outbursts. This innovative behavioral support has been proven to “enhance the educational [environment, as well as] improve cooperation [of students with reiteration of teacher commands and] requests [during instruction.]” ( Kerr, M., & Nelson, C. M., 2010, p. 229). Sound-Field Amplification acts as an easing agent for teachers by providing them with the means to reach all students in a quick and effective manner; decreasing student isolation, teacher frustration and continual redirection to individual students. Teachers who are planning and/or implementing tiered interventions, such as PBS will find SFA as a resourceful tool for students who exhibit behavioral deficits (i.e., attention problems, off-task actions, lack of interest, continual redirection, etc.) and should always consider SFA as an effective positive behavioral support. One recommendation that teachers can utilize to enhance the success rate of this intervention is to be consistent in redirection, as well as to be cautious when redirecting individual students when utilizing this innovative tool during instruction. We do not want to further isolate students, which could cause student frustration, embarrassment and increased negatively exhibited behaviors. It should be noted that educational professionals should individualize behavioral supports and should only implement SFA when deemed appropriate.

Reference

Kerr, M., & Nelson, C. M. (2010). //Strategies for addressing behavior problems in the classroom// (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

**Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Behavior** Kristy Bell Differential reinforcement of low rates of behavior (DRL) is an evidence-based intervention that can be used to address swearing, inappropriate questioning, and negative verbal comments (Kerr & Nelson, 2010). DRL can be used in any grade-level or subject. The purpose of this intervention is to reduce the number of negative comments or questions, with the end-goal being elimination. To implement DRL, the teacher should review the classroom rules and discuss appropriate language with the students. The teacher should tell the students how many inappropriate comments will be allowed for each day (Kerr & Nelson, 2010). Eventually this number will continue to decrease, until students are only using appropriate language (Kerr & Nelson, 2010). The teacher then decides how to keep track of the inappropriate comments. For example, he or she may make a mark on the board. The language should not be discussed or reprimanded at this time (Kerr & Nelson, 2010). At the end of the day, if the maximum number of negative comments was not exceeded, the students receive a positive reinforcement of their choice; this reward can come from a reinforcement menu that has been created by the class (Kerr & Nelson, 2010). If the students exceed the maximum number of allowed comments, they do not receive reinforcement. Many teachers may know that once students have lost reinforcement for the day, their behavior can become worse because they no longer have anything to work toward. To prevent this from happening, the teacher can provide an additional reinforcement. For example, if the students exceed the maximum number of allowed negative comments by less than five, they may still earn reinforcement choice at the end of the week (Kerr & Nelson, 2010). The teacher should keep track of the comments that are made and communicate this information to students. By graphing the number of inappropriate comments, the teacher can show the students the growth they have made (Kerr & Nelson, 2010). This intervention is intended to minimalize and eventually eliminate the behavior, as teachers understand behavior changes take time (Kerr & Nelson, 2010).

Reference: Kerr, M., & Nelson, C. M. (2010). //Strategies for addressing behavior problems in the classroom// (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

**Token Economy Programs** Kristy Bell Token economies can be used as a group reinforcement technique. This intervention has been proven successful across various ability and age levels (Kerr & Nelson, 2010). Token economies are conditioned reinforcers, which means that the token is a neutral item by itself, but when paired with a reinforce, the token becomes a positive reinforcer (Kerr and Nelson, 2010). In a token economy students are recognized for exhibiting positive behaviors and given a “token”. The token can be a coin, ticket, chip, checkmark, or star). Once the student earns a designated number of tokens, the tokens can be exchanged for a reward. In order for a token economy to be successful, the rewards must be of value to the students. An important aspect of a successful token economy is that teachers must provide specific and positive feedback when giving the students their tokens (Kerr & Nelson, 2010). The students must know exactly what they did to earn the token. Another important part of a successful token economy is that students must understand the mathematical calculations behind when they are earning their rewards (Kerr & Nelson, 2010). Consistency is also important in the token economy. This ensures that there is no confusion about when students can earn tokens and rewards (Kerr & Nelson, 2010). When setting up a token economy, educators should adhere to the following steps identified by Kerr and Nelson (2010): The token economy can be a powerful group reinforcement intervention if used correctly. Various techniques can be used based on ability and age level of students. Teachers can create checking accounts, debit cards, or coin banks to teach economics and the value of money.
 * 1) Create target behaviors so that students understand the expectations. Be sure to choose easy behaviors so that all students experience success.
 * 2) Identify negative behaviors that should be minimized or eliminated. These behaviors can also cause students to lose tokens. Negative behaviors should be opposite of the behaviors that are desired in the classroom in order to promote the positive behaviors.
 * 3) As a class, choose the specific reinforcers and fines so that they are enjoyable for the students. This will ensure that students want to work toward the rewards.
 * 4) Choose the tokens that will work in the classroom. These may be checkmarks on a form, tickets, play money, or stamps. Keep in mind the age and skill level of students to ensure the tokens will be successful in the classroom.
 * 5) Choose forms or containers to prevent students from giving themselves tokens. A certain colored marker could be used to prevent cheating.
 * 6) Include bonus points in the token economy. This allows students to be recognized for participating in unexpected, but appropriate behaviors.
 * 7) Organize the exchange of points or tokens. Ensure that this exchange occurs at regular intervals and is not time consuming.
 * 8) Monitor, adjust, and review the economy with the students as needed.

Reference: Kerr, M., & Nelson, C. M. (2010). //Strategies for addressing behavior problems in the classroom// (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

** Check-in/Check-out ** LaSheba Woodall

When students are identified with having a behavioral issue, the most common approach to implementing targeted tier interventions is to establish a Check-in/Check-out (CICO) intervention. Check-in/Check-out intervention increases structure, predictability, contingent feedback, and progress monitoring (Kerr & Nelson, pg 55, 2010). This strategy helps monitor at-risk students who tend to roam the halls, get into arguments, and engage in other behaviors that can lead to aggression (Kerr & Nelson, pg. 263, 2010). According to Kerr and Nelson, to implement a CICO intervention, the targeted intervention team members complete the following steps (Kerr & Nelson, pgs. 55-56, 2010):

1. Team members agree upon the specific features of the CICO intervention at their school. That is they identify (a) where and with whom students will check-in and check-out before and after school, (b) how students will be monitored and received feedback through the day, (c) how students will be recognized for improvements in their behavior, and (d) the resourced required to run the intervention.

2. Team members develop the products required to implement their CICO program. Specifically, they develop a daily behavior report card that includes (a) school-wide expectation as row heading, (b) periods or class activities as column headings, (c) an opportunity for a teacher to rate the student on each expectation during each period or activity, (d) space to record a point goal and points earned for the day, and (e) space for teacher(s) and guardian(s) to write positive comments.

3. Using the training protocols developed preciously, team members provide training to staff and identified students, and implement the intervention. That is, they assist students with (a) checking-in with the designated staff member(s) to receive positive adult attention; (b) carrying their daily behavior report cards and recruiting teacher feedback at the end of each period or activity; (c) checking with the same designated staff member(s) to receive positive feedback and trade in points for back-up rewards; (d) bringing the daily behavior reports cards to and from home where guardian(s) are asked to provide positive feedback.

4. The targeted intervention team meets weekly to monitor the intervention. At the weekly meeting, team member review ODR (office discipline referrals) data and teacher nominations to identify new students for intervention, and they review student outcome data for students currently participating in the intervention. 5.  Finally, the targeted intervention team provides quarterly updates to all faculty and family members. At faculty meetings, team members should provide a brief update about the number of students served, and overall success of students in the program, and other similar aggregate information; they should not share confidential student-specific data. Team members should also give individualized updates to family members of participating students. These updates should contain a graph of the student’s data, narrative description of the student’s success, and praise for the family member’s involvement.

The CICO can be an essential intervention if the team uses it properly. Research indicates that the Behavior Education Program and similar CICO interventions can decrease the frequency of problem behavior for students (Kerr & Nelson, pg 64, 2010).

Reference: Kerr, M., & Nelson, C. M. (2010). //Strategies for addressing behavior problems in the classroom// (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

** Contingency Contracts ** LaSheba Woodall ==== According to Kerr and Nelson, A contingency contract is an agreement between a student and an adult that specifies an academic or behavioral expectation who will be observing the student’s performance, a reinforcer to be earned for performance of the expectation, and a contingency (Kerr & Nelson, pg 242-243, 2010). Behavioral goals should be part of the contract. Before a contracted is written, a present level of performance is first assess. This is to see what level the student is on, before the selecting the appropriate goals. You also need to <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">explain to the student what a contract is. Your explanation will depend on the conversational level of the child, but it may be helpful to use examples of contracts that the student will encounter. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> ==== <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">General guidelines for implementing a contingency contract would include the following (Kerr & Nelson, pgs. 240-244, 2010):
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; tabstops: list .5in;">Explain to the student what a contract is. Your explanation will depend on the conversational level of the child, but it may be helpful to use examples of contracts that the student will encounter.
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; tabstops: list .5in;">Share examples of contracts with the student.
 * 3) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; tabstops: list .5in;">Ask the student to suggest tasks or behaviors that might be included in a contract between student and teacher. Write these down.
 * 4) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; tabstops: list .5in;">Suggest tasks/behaviors that you would like to see the student accomplish, and write these down.
 * 5) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; tabstops: list .5in;">Decide on mutually agreeable tasks/behaviors. If a third party is to be involved in the contract, be sure that the party also agree on the tasks that you have selected.
 * 6) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; tabstops: list .5in;">Discuss with the student possible activities, items, or privileges that the student would like to earn. Write these down.
 * 7) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; tabstops: list .5in;">Negotiates how the student will earn the reinforcers by accomplishing portions or all the tasks, or instances of desired behavior.
 * 8) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; tabstops: list .5in;">Identify the criteria for mastery of each task, or the criteria for counting an occurrence of the behavior.
 * 9) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; tabstops: list .5in;">Determine when the student will receive the reinforcers for completing tasks or engaging in targeted behaviors.
 * 10) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; tabstops: list .5in;">Determine when the contract will reviewed to make necessary revisions or to note progress.
 * 11) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; tabstops: list .5in;">Make an extra copy of the contract. Give this copy to the student and any third party involved.
 * 12) <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt; tabstops: list .5in;">Sign the contract, get the student to sign the contract, and if there is a third party involved, ask the third party to sign the contract.

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Reference: <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Kerr, M., & Nelson, C. M. (2010). //Strategies for addressing behavior problems in the classroom// (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

** High Probability Request Sequences ** Robert Cowan The high probability request sequence begins when a teacher requests an action from a student. This initial action should be one that is easy and normally followed. The teacher should continue these easy (high probability requests) three to five times and then graduate to an activity that is normally resisted or refused (low probability request) (Kerr, M., Nelson, C., 2010, p. 229-230). In this way, the student builds a comfortable routine to transition to the more difficult task. This is also known as behavioral momentum. The alternative, which can be more frustrating, is to address a low probability request with rigid one-on-one attention using other rewards or punishments. This can be tiring, and the constant teacher attention can be the student's true goal. The more alternate PBS strategies that are available, the greater the likelihood of achieving a learning focused environment.

Kerr, M., & Nelson, C. M. (2010). //Strategies for addressing behavior problems in the classroom// (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

** Group Contingencies ** <span style="display: block; font-family: Times New Roman; line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: center;">Robert Cowan Group contingencies are broken into three categories, dependent, independent, and interdependent. Each takes advantage of social reinforcers to modify behaviors. With dependent contingencies, the peer performance of certain group members determines the consequence received by the entire group (Kerr, M., Nelson, C., 2010, p. 244). One student is selected to represent the entire group. This method should not be used when the makeup of a group exhibits antisocial behavior such as with EBD students. Independent contingencies are similar consequences applied to each member of the group. A good example is a token economy. Similar expectations lead to similar rewards. With an interdependent group contingency, each group must reach a prescribed level of behavior before the entire group receives reinforcers. All students must attain the same, minimum level of performance for the rewards to be distributed. In a PBS system, all three methods can be used depending on the level of need. The dependent method would appear to be less teacher time focused, and would work best with a relatively compliant group of children. The selected student could vary based on a chart or schedule, perhaps a new student each 15 or 30 minute block.

Kerr, M., & Nelson, C. M. (2010). //Strategies for addressing behavior problems in the classroom// (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

** Praise-and-Ignore Approach ** Zakiyyah Watts

The Praise-and-Ignore approach requires knowledge and skill on behalf of the teacher. It makes a difference when teachers have relationships with their students and understand how the students think and respond to various directives. Therefore, teachers must be aware that this approach is only effective if the student is engaging in teacher attention seeking behavior (Kerr & Nelson, 2010). For example, if a student is misbehaving to gain the attention of his or her peers and receives it, then that response will motivate them to continue to misbehave. Teachers must also be mindful that correcting behavior takes time and, therefore, will not occur as quickly as the teacher would like (Kerr & Nelson, 2010). For this reason, it is important to maintain firm and continue using this model. If teachers become irritated with the student and begin to give attention the negative behavior, all respect will be lost for the Praise-and-Ignore approach (Kerr & Nelson, 2010). It is never a good idea to let the student be in control.

Another way to ensure that the approach is effective is for teachers to create an atmosphere where other adults understand the concept of this model and offer assistance by purposely distracting you from giving attention to the student (Kerr & Nelson, 2010). Most students who are seeking teacher attention will stop misbehaving when they see that the teacher is not in a position to notice them. Teachers must also provide praise often for demonstration of appropriate behavior (Kerr & Nelson, 2010). By doing this, the teacher is giving the student the attention that he or she craves; however, it is reinforcing positive behavior. Finally, teachers must have a back-up strategy in mind just in case they are unable to ignore misbehavior due to the fact that the student’s inappropriate behavior may heighten as they try to gain attention (Kerr & Nelson, 2010). If teachers follow these simple guidelines, the success rate will be high. However, it takes time and patience.

Reference:

Kerr, M., & Nelson, C. M. (2010). //Strategies for addressing behavior problems in the classroom//

(6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Alpha and Content-embedded Requests Zakiyyah Watts

Alpha and content-imbedded requests are both forms of communication. However, one is more effective when giving student directives. According to Kerr & Nelson, alpha commands are assertive and clear while beat commands tend to reveal emotions about the student’s behavior (2010). It is important to be direct when speaking to students. With this approach, the student understands exactly what he or she is required to do. Furthermore, it is not a good idea to let students know that they have the upper hand on your emotions because some will use this to their advantage. Other forms of communication include content-embedded and managerial requests. Teachers are encouraged to use content-embedded requests as they include instructional material within the message (Kerr & Nelson, 2010). These types of request will more likely invite students to comply. An example of a content-embedded request would be to say, “Watch as I demonstrate how to calculate this word problem.” On the other hand, an example of the managerial request would be to say, “Everyone, look at this model” ( Kerr & Nelson, 2010). Teachers are encouraged to use effective means of communicating appropriately with students.

Reference:

Kerr, M., & Nelson, C. M. (2010). //Strategies for addressing behavior problems in the classroom//

(6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.